The Wiley Handbook of Genius	3
	Contents	7
	List of Contributors	11
	Preface	19
	Part I Perspectives	25
	1 The Genius in History: Historiographic Explorations	27
	The Relationship between History and Genius	27
	History and the Psychology of Genius	29
	The Psychology of Genius: Theory Across History	32
	The creative genius	32
	The mad genius	32
	The intelligent genius	33
	The eminent genius	33
	The Psychology of Genius: Historical Methods	34
	Quantitative approaches	34
	Qualitative approaches	36
	The Genius in History	37
	Notes	39
	References	40
	2 The Psychobiography of Genius	44
	Introduction	44
	George W. Bush	47
	John Lennon	50
	Truman Capote	52
	Implicit Prescriptions	54
	References	55
	3 Interviewing Highly Eminent Creators	57
	Why Interview Eminent Creators?	58
	Interview Research on Eminent Creators and Its Place in the Study of Creativity	61
	Major Interview Studies of Eminent Creativity	65
	Anne Roe: the making of a scientist (and artist)	65
	Bernice Eiduson: The Scientist Project	70
	The Institute of Personality Assessment and Research: highly creative persons	70
	Harriet Zuckerman: scientific elite – Nobel laureates in the United States	71
	Albert Rothenberg: studies in the creative process	72
	Vera John-Steiner: Notebooks of the Mind	72
	Nancy Andreasen: creativity and mental illness	73
	Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: Creativity in Later Life Study	73
	Vera John-Steiner: creative collaborations	74
	Other Interview Research on Creativity	75
	Best Practices for Interviewing Eminent Creators	76
	Before getting started	77
	Sampling	77
	Recruitment	77
	Getting ready for the interview	78
	During the interview	79
	After the interview	80
	Conclusion	81
	Acknowledgments	81
	References	82
	4 Psychometric Studies of Scientific Talent and Eminence	86
	Scientific Talent and Eminence Defined	86
	Psychometric Investigations of Scientific Talent and Eminence	88
	Behavioral genetic studies	89
	Developmental studies of scientific talent and eminence	90
	Cognitive studies of scientific talent	93
	Personality studies of scientific interest, talent, and eminence	96
	Social–cultural studies of scientific talent	99
	Summary and Future Directions	101
	References	102
	5 Historiometric Studies of Genius	111
	Introduction	111
	Illustrations	113
	Developmental studies of genius	113
	Differential studies of genius	115
	Cognitive studies of genius	119
	Sociocultural studies of genius	120
	Conclusion	123
	References	124
	Part II Processes	131
	6 The Neuroscience of Creative Genius	133
	What Is Neuroscience?	133
	What Tools from Neuroscience Can Be Used to Study Creativity?	133
	What Is Creative Genius?	136
	How Should a Neuroscientist Identify Subjects for Study?	138
	What Kinds of Tasks Can Be Used to Assess Creativity Using Neuroimaging Tools?	138
	What Have We Learned from Our Work So Far?	141
	Conclusions	142
	References	142
	7 Artistic Genius and Creative Cognition	144
	Introduction	144
	Hypotheses	145
	Visual Arts	147
	Painting	147
	Architecture	149
	Literary Arts	151
	Novels	151
	Poetry	153
	Philosophy	154
	Musical Arts	156
	Music	156
	Dance	157
	Comparisons	159
	Conclusion	160
	Acknowledgments	160
	References	161
	8 Case Studies of Genius: Ordinary Thinking, Extraordinary Outcomes	163
	Extraordinary Thinking As the Basis for Genius-Level Creativity	164
	Associative hierarchies and creativity	164
	Genius-Level Creativity As the Expression of Ordinary Thought Processes	165
	Components of ordinary thinking	165
	Continuity with the Past in Creative Thinking	166
	Learning to be creative	166
	Learning to be creative: conclusions	168
	Continuity with the past in creative thinking: antecedents to creative advances	168
	Continuity with the past in creative thinking: incremental advances	171
	Continuity in genius-level creativity: conclusions	172
	Structure in the Creative Process	172
	Structured thought in Picasso’s development of Guernica	173
	Antecedents to the structure of Guernica	175
	The psychological links between Minotauromachy and Guernica	175
	Structure in creative thinking: conclusions	176
	Cognitive Components of Creative Thinking: Edison’s Invention of the Light Bulb	176
	Critical analysis and discontinuity in thinking	178
	Cognitive processes in creative thinking: conclusions	178
	External Triggers to Creativity	179
	Calder’s mobiles	179
	External triggers in science	180
	Innovation and external events: conclusions	180
	The Ordinary Basis for Creative Thinking: Conclusions and Several Remaining Questions	181
	Implications of the present results for Mednick’s hierarchies	181
	Questions about expertise as the basis for creativity and genius	183
	A Final Question: What Then Is the Basis for Genius?	185
	References	187
	9 Virtual Genius	190
	Introduction	190
	Background	190
	Definition	191
	Human Examples of Genius	192
	Computer Examples of Genius	200
	More Possibilities	203
	Conclusions	205
	References	206
	Part III Attributes	207
	10 Varieties of Genius	209
	Types of Genius	210
	Creative genius	210
	Genius of analytical intelligence	215
	Genius of practical intelligence	216
	Wisdom-based genius	217
	Conclusions	221
	References	221
	11 Cognitive Disinhibition, Creativity, and Psychopathology	222
	Creativity and Creative Genius	223
	Cognitive Disinhibition	224
	Creativity and Mental Disorders Associated with Disinhibition	226
	Creativity and psychosis proneness	226
	Creativity and mood disorders	228
	Creativity and alcohol abuse	230
	The Shared Vulnerability Model of Creativity and Psychopathology	231
	Cognitive disinhibition as a shared vulnerability factor	233
	High IQ as a protective factor	235
	Additional shared vulnerability factors	237
	Additional cognitive protective factors	238
	Conclusions	239
	References	240
	12 Openness to Experience	246
	Openness and Personality Structure	247
	Properties of Openness	248
	Observability	248
	Universality	248
	Stability and developmental course	249
	Heritability	250
	Conceptualizing Openness	251
	Case Studies of Personality and Genius	255
	A mathematical genius	257
	A musical genius	258
	Conclusion	261
	Acknowledgments	262
	Notes	262
	References	263
	13 Political and Military Geniuses: Psychological Profiles and Responses to Stress	268
	Measuring the Quality of Political and Military Leadership	268
	Subject Selection in this Chapter	269
	Measurement at a Distance	270
	Methodology of the Current Chapter	271
	Hypotheses of the Current Study	275
	Method	276
	Selection and scoring of texts	276
	Subjects	276
	Biographies	276
	Political	276
	Military	279
	Both	281
	Results	283
	IC	284
	MI	284
	Discussion	285
	Caveat	285
	TCA findings	285
	Biographical notes	287
	Acknowledgments	288
	Notes	288
	References	289
	Part IV Origins	291
	14 Genetics of Intellectual and Personality Traits Associated with Creative Genius: Could Geniuses Be Cosmobian Dragon Kings?	293
	Classical Quantitative Genetic Models in Humans	294
	Intelligence	296
	Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence	298
	Personality and Psychopathology	299
	Genetic and Environmental Influences on Personality and Psychopatholgy	301
	Genetic Influences on Miscellaneous Traits Relevant to Creative Genius	302
	Specific measures of creative personality	302
	Psychological interests	303
	The Barron–Welsh Art Scale	303
	Molecular Genetics and Genius	303
	Emergenesis	304
	Autism	305
	An Aside on Distributions	306
	The not-so-normal normal curve	306
	Lotka-like distributions	306
	Are Geniuses Black Swans, Dragon-Kings, or Hopeful Monsters?	307
	Black swans	307
	Dragon-kings	307
	Hopeful monsters	308
	The Relevance of Dragon-Kings and Hopeful Monsters to Our Understanding of the Emergence of Creative Genius	310
	Geniuses as statistical dragon-kings	310
	Geniuses as hopeful monsters	310
	Geniuses as dragon-kings emerging through cosmobia?	312
	Note	313
	References	313
	15 Child Prodigies and Adult Genius: A Weak Link	321
	Globally Gifted Children	322
	Unevenly Gifted Children	324
	What Does Giftedness in Visual Art and Music Look Like?	325
	Giftedness in drawing	325
	Giftedness in music	330
	Interest in musical sounds	330
	Musical memory	330
	Perfect pitch	331
	Sight-reading	331
	Musical generativity: ability to transpose, improvise, and compose	331
	How Much is Innate?	332
	The Role of Families	333
	The Social and Emotional Lives of Gifted Children	335
	Implications for Education and Child Rearing	336
	Childhood Giftedness and Adult Giftedness: No Straight Trajectory	337
	References	339
	16 Creative Genius: A View from the Expert-Performance Approach	345
	The Traditional View of the Nature of Talent and Creative Genius	347
	A Review of the Expert-Performance Approach	349
	Representative tasks: capture of reproducibly superior expert performance	350
	Analyzing the mechanisms mediating the superior performance	352
	Toward detailed accounts of the development of mechanisms mediating expert performance	352
	Developmental stages of expert performance and pre-existing knowledge	355
	Proposed limits for accounts based on the expert-performance approach	356
	Toward an Expert-Performance Account of Creative Contributions	359
	Developmental trajectories for individuals making creative contributions in science and arts	359
	Capturing the process of generating a particular creative product	361
	Genius and the motivation and drive for sustained focused activity	365
	Concluding Remarks	366
	Acknowledgments	367
	References	367
	17 Cognitive Processes and Development of Chess Genius: An Integrative Approach	374
	Introduction	374
	Previous Attempts to Explain the Existence of Remarkable Achievements in Young Chess Players	375
	Deliberate practice	375
	Criticisms of the deliberate practice framework	376
	Alternatives to deliberate practice	377
	In Search of a New Model of the Development of Chess Expertise	379
	Cognitive Processes Underlying Chess Expertise	380
	Template theory	380
	SEARCH model	381
	PPP and two simpler models	381
	Mathematical Simulation	385
	Variables	386
	Results	388
	Summary of results	394
	Conclusions and Future Research	395
	Notes	396
	References	396
	18 Diversifying Experiences in the Development of Genius and their Impact on Creative Cognition	399
	Correlational Research	401
	Historiometric research	401
	Psychometric research	408
	Experimental Research	411
	Group creativity	411
	Individual creativity	412
	Conclusion and Future Directions	413
	References	414
	Part V Trajectories	419
	19 The Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth at Maturity: Insights into Elements of Genius	421
	The Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth	422
	Conceptualizing Talent Development	422
	Cognitive Abilities	424
	Interests	431
	Constellations of attributes	433
	Conation	435
	Emergence of Genius	436
	Concluding Thoughts	439
	Acknowledgments	440
	Notes	440
	References	440
	20 Age and Scientific Genius	446
	Introduction	446
	Basic Life-Cycle Patterns and Classic Views	448
	The early life cycle	454
	The middle and late life cycle	455
	Cross-field comparisons	456
	The New Literature: Variation over Time and Across Individuals	457
	Variation over time	457
	Variation across individuals	461
	Field differences reconsidered	465
	Discussion	466
	Scientific and technological progress	466
	Demographics	468
	Science institutions	469
	New research directions	470
	Conclusion	470
	Acknowledgments	471
	Notes	471
	References	472
	21 Musical Creativity over the Lifespan	475
	Introduction	475
	Characterizations of Genius	476
	A Qualitative Sketch of Musical Creativity over the Lifespan	477
	Formative years	477
	Compositional maturity	478
	Late periods	479
	Methodological Issues	480
	Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Creativity	481
	Empirical facts	481
	Expertise acquisition	482
	Blind variation and selective retention	482
	Limitations of nomothetic models	483
	Moving away from nomothetic explanations: a typological approach	485
	Melodic originality as a lifespan variable	487
	Some Unresolved Issues and Future Directions	488
	The nature of eminence	488
	The individual within the tradition and the fate of traditions	490
	Conclusion: Wisdom Revisited	491
	Notes	492
	References	492
	22 Literary Geniuses: Their Life, Work, and Death	497
	The Study of Creative Writers	498
	What Constitutes Literary Genius?	499
	Career Trajectories	500
	The Writer’s Personality, Flow, and Emotions	501
	Flow	502
	Emotions	503
	The Dark Side of Literary Genius	503
	Drug and alcohol use	505
	Writers and Death	505
	Conclusions	506
	References	507
	23 Lifetime Biopsychosocial Trajectories of the Terman Gifted Children: Health, Well-Being, and Longevity	512
	Early Characteristics	513
	Lifelong Pathways	514
	Intelligence and School Performance: An Early Life Advantage?	515
	Career success	516
	Social skills, social support, and marriage	517
	Mental adjustment and stressful life events	521
	Personality	523
	Retirement, health, and longevity	525
	Conclusion: Lifelong Cumulative and Interactional Continuity	526
	References	528
	Part VI Contexts	533
	24 Evaluating Excellence in the Arts	535
	Canons	537
	One or several canons	539
	Canons and ideology	540
	Open and closed canons	540
	Formation of a canon: How do artists (or works) attain canonical status?	541
	Stability of the canon	545
	Circles of a canon	545
	Canons in practice	546
	Rankings	547
	Aggregating ratings or rankings produced by a jury	548
	Aggregating ratings of properties	549
	Aggregating ratings or rankings of properties produced by a jury	552
	Special cases	552
	Conclusions	552
	Notes	553
	References	553
	25 The Systems Model of Creativity and Its Applications	557
	A Brief History of the Concept of Creativity	557
	Early stages	557
	Creativity as a topic in psychology	559
	Systems Model of Creativity	561
	Systems Model of Creativity: Some Research Applications	565
	Systems Model and Construction of Positive Psychology	565
	References	568
	26 Openness to Scientific Innovation	570
	Introduction	570
	Planck’s Principle: Age and Receptivity	571
	A Meta-Analytic Approach to Scientific Innovation	573
	Heterogeneity of Effects	577
	Initiators of Scientific Innovations	580
	Conclusion	583
	Notes	583
	References	584
	27 Prominent Modern Artists: Determinants of Creativity	588
	Introduction	588
	Dataset	589
	Framework of Econometric Analysis	590
	Location Matters: Peer Effects in the Artistic Clusters of Paris and New York	591
	Artistic Styles and Implications for Creativity	597
	Travel as an Inspiration	600
	Democracy and Creativity	603
	Conclusion	606
	Notes	606
	References	607
	28 Genius in World Civilization	610
	Introduction	610
	The Meta-Inventions	610
	Temporal and Geographic Distribution of Significant Figures and Events from 800 BCE to 1900	616
	Temporal distribution	617
	Geographic distribution	619
	Are the inventories Eurocentric?	621
	Testing for Eurocentrism in the STMM inventory	624
	Conclusion	627
	Notes	628
	References	631
	Part VII Prospects	633
	29 Does Genius Science Have a Future History?	635
	Will Empirical and Theoretical Research Continue to Advance?	635
	Issues still pending resolution	636
	Methods still needing full exploitation	636
	Theories still requiring complete development	637
	Will the Phenomenon of Genius Continue to Exist?	638
	Will the Science of Genius Ensure the Continued Existence of Genius?	639
	References	640
	Appendix	643
	Index	653
	Supplemental Images	675